Classic Texts

The process of democratization is a long and complicated one. Despite its increasing relevance, the consolidation of democracy is neither an easy, nor a monolithic process. There is great debate within the field about possible pre-conditions for democracy as well as the very origins of the democratization drive and the process of popular political participation. The texts listed here represent some of the classical studies of this process.

  • Copp, David, Hampton, Jean & Roemer, John (eds.): The Idea of Democracy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
  • Dahl, Robert: Democracy and its Critics, (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989).
  • Di Palma, Giuseppe: To Craft Democracies, (Berkeley, CA: The University of California Press, 1990).
  • Diamond, Larry”: Consolidating Democracy: Toward Consolidation (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1999).
  • Dryzek, John S.: Democracy in Capitalist Times, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996).
  • Dunn, John, ed.: Democracy, The Unfinished Journey, 508 BC to AD 1993, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992).
  • Elster, Jon ed.: Deliberative Democracy, (Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
  • Holmes, Stephen: “Constitutionalism,” in Seymour Martin Lipset, ed., Encyclopedia of Democracy.
  • Lijphart, Arend: Electoral Systems and Party Systems (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994).
  • Linz, Juan J. and Stepan, Alfred: Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1996).
  • Moore, Barrington: Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy. (Boston: Beacon Press, 1993).
  • O’Donnell, Guillermo, Schmitter, Philippe & Whitehead, Laurence: Transitions from Authoritarian Rule (1986).

Democracy in the World Today

A recent UNDP Human Development Report describes the world today as more economically, politically and technologically free than ever before, but also more unjust. This contrast between increasing freedom and opportunity on the one hand, and increasingly entrenched poverty and inequality on the other remains a serious challenge to all those concerned about healthy democratic development. The following books and articles address these issues.

The Third Wave: New Democracies in the 1990s and Beyond

Since the fall of the Berlin Wall and the demise of the Soviet Union new democracies have emerged not only in Eastern and Central Europe but also in Africa, Asia and Latin America. Just as the First and Second Waves of democracy that swept the world following the American and French revolutions and the democratization and decolonization of the post-World War II period, this Third Wave poses profound questions. Will the new democracies consolidate their democratic gains? Will democracy continue to spread to countries not yet transformed? Or will the tide of democratic change recede, reversing the results of the Third Wave?

  • Carothers, Thomas: The Learning Curve, Xioabo Li, ed., Promise and Problems of Old and New Democracies, (New York: Academy of Political Science, 2000).
  • Diamond, Larry: Winning the New Cold War on Terrorism: The Democratic-Governance Imperative ( IGD Policy Paper, 2002)
  • Diamond, Larry, Linz, J. Juan and Lipset, Seymour Martin eds.: Politics in Developing Countries: Comparing Experiences with Democracy, 2nd edition, (Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1995).
  • Diamond, Larry and Marc F. Plattner, eds.: The Global Resurgence of Democracy, 2nd ed. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996).
  • Diamond, Larry, Plattner, Marc F., Chu, Yun-han, and Tien, Hung-mao, eds.: Consolidating the Third-Wave Democracies: Themes and Perspectives (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1997).
  • Grey, Robert D.: Democratic Theory and Post-Communist Change, (Prentice-Hall, 1997).
  • Hadenius, Alex ed.: Democracy’s Victory and Crisis (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997).
  • Huntington, Samuel P.: The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century, University of Oklahoma Press, 1991.
  • Plattner, F. Marc and Diamond, Larry eds.: Journal of Democracy, (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press).
  • Putnam, Robert: Making Democracy Work.
  • Rose, Richard, Mishler, William and Haerpfer, Christian: Democracy and Its Alternatives: Understanding Postcommunist Societies (Oxford: Polity Press, 1998).
  • Schedler, Andreas, Diamond, Larry and Plattner, F. Marc eds.: The Self-Restraining State: Power and Accountability in New Democracies, (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1999).
  • Sorensen, George: Democracy and Democratization: Processes and Prospects in a Changing World, (Westview, 1998).

Democracy Around the World

Each region in the world confronts its own challenges to its the consolidation of democracy. Western Europe and the United States continue to serve as stalwarts of democratic principles, although campaign finance issues continue to present challenges to its health. East and Central represent emerging democratic leaders. In the Americas, the last 20 years has seen an enormous shift from authoritarianism to democracy in the majority of the continent, although recent political struggles in places like Venezuela indicate that democracy’s consolidation remains incomplete in the region. Africa has experienced numerous advances in the 90’s and there has been increased optimism, although many countries still face the continued challenge of real state-building, national identity and ethnicity in their efforts to build a democratic political environment. In Asia, the little dragons are struggling to keep high levels of growth while increasing popular participation, and although the region has experienced increased democratization overall, much work remains to be done.

AFRICA
Imperfectly, reluctantly, tentatively, democracy is inching across a continent better known for wars, disease, corruption, and repression. Since 1990, 42 of the 48 countries in sub-Saharan Africa have held multiparty elections, the World Bank says. Not since Africans began shaking off colonial rule more than 40 years ago has the continent witnessed such broad political change.

  • African Leadership Council urges Good Governance
  • Ake, Claude: “Rethinking African Democracy” Journal of Democracy, Vol. 2 #1, 1991.
  • Bratton, Michael & Van de Walle, Nicolas: Democratic Experiments in Africa.
  • Chabal, Patrick: “A Few Considerations on Democracy in Africa.” International Affairs, Vol. 74, 2, 1998.
  • Herbst, Jeffrey: “Prospects for Elite-Driven Democracy in Africa”. Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 112, #4. Winter 1998.
  • Mamdani, Mahmood: Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism.
  • Monga, Celestin: The Anthropology of Anger: Civil Society in Africa.
  • Ndegwa, Steve “A Decade of Democracy in Africa.” Journal of Asian African Studies, Vol. 36, #1, 2001.
  • Rachel L. Swarns with Norimitsu Onishi: "Africa Creeps Along Path to Democracy," http://www.nytimes.com/2002/06/02/international/africa/02DEMO.htm
  • Rudebeck, Lars: “To Seek Happiness: Development in a West African Village in the Era of Democratization.” Review of African Political Economy, Vol.24, March 1997.

AMERICAS

  • Farer, Tom (Editor): Beyond sovereignty, collectively defending democracy in the Americas (1996)
  • Mainwaring, Scott (Editor): Issues in Democratic Consolidation, The New South American Democracies (1992)
  • Paige, Jeffery M.: Coffee and power: revolution and the rise of democracy in Central America (1997)
  • Pastor, Robert A. (Editor), Alfonsin, Raul (Foreword), Carter, Jimmy (Foreword): Democracy in the Americas: Stopping the Pendulum (Holmes & Meier Publishers, Inc., December 1989)
  • Putnam, Robert: “Bowling Alone. America’s Declining Social Capital,” Journal of Democracy, 6, n.1 (1995), p. 65-78.

ASIA

  • Bertrand, Jacques: “False Starts, Succession Crises and Regime Transition: Flirting with Openness in Indonesia” Pacific Affairs, Autumn, 1996.
  • Brown, Frederick: “Vietnam’s Tentative Transformation” in Diamond, Democracy in East Asia.
  • Case, William E: “Thai Democracy 2001: Out of Equilibrium” Asian Survey, Vol. XLI, #3 May/June 2001.
  • Han, Sung-joo & Chung, Oknim: “South Korea: Economic Management and Democratization” in Morley, Driven by Growth.
  • Jones, David M.: “Democratization, Civil Society and Illiberal Middle Class Culture in Pacific Asia.” Comparative Politics, Vol. 30, #2. January, 1998.
  • Lee, Rose J. and Clark, Cal (eds.): Democracy and the Status of Women in East Asia. 2000.
  • Loathamatas, Anek: “A Tale of Two Democracies: Conflicting Perceptions of Elections and Democracy in Thailand.” In R.H. Taylor (ed.) The Politics of Elections in Southeast Asia (Washington. The Wilson Center Press. 1996).
  • Means, Gordon P.: “Soft Authoritarianism in Malaysia and Singapore” in Diamond and Plattner, Democracy in Asia.
  • Pei, Minxin: “Creeping Democratization in China.” In Diamond (ed.) Consolidating the Third Wave Democracies. (Johns Hopkins, Baltimore, 1997)
  • Pye, Lucian: “Civility, Social Capital and Civil Society: Three powerful Concerpts for Explaining Asia.” The Journal of Interdisciplinary History, Vol. 29, #4, Spring 1999.
  • Reynolds, Andrew, Stepan, Alfred, Zaw Oo & Levine, Steven: “How Burma Could Democratize” Journal of Democracy, Vol. 12 #4. October 2001.
  • Romero, Segundo E.: “Changing Filipino Values and the Redemocratization of Governance” in Han, Changing Values.
  • Sung-joo, Han: Changing Values in Asia: Their Impact on Governance and Development
  • Tien, Hung-mao: “Taiwan’s Transformation” in Diamond, Consolidating Third World Democracies.
  • Yanzhung, Wang: “Chinese Values, Governance and International Relations” in Han Sung-joo

EUROPE

  • Gunther, Richard: The Politics of Democratic Consolidation: Southern Europe in Comparative Perspective (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995).
  • Manuel, Paul Christopher: The Challenges of Democratic Consolidation in Portugal: Political, Economic and Military Issues, 1976-1991 (1996)
  • Moravcsik, Andrew (Editor): Centralization or fragmentation? Europe facing the challenges of deepening, diversity and democracy (1998)
  • Plasser, Fritz: Democratic Consolidation in East-Central Europe (1998)
  • Zielonka, Jan (Editor): Democratic Consolidation in Eastern Europe: Institutional Engineering (2001)


Democracy Promotion

The U.S. has had a long tradition of supporting and promoting democratic ideals and values. Articulated strongly by President Woodrow Wilson, American internationalism found its modern focus in Franklin Delano Roosevelt, who solidified the nation’s commitment to the “Four Freedoms” and democracy around the world. That commitment remained a core value throughout the cold war, and intensified dramatically in its aftermath. As a result, the 1990’s saw an explosion of democracy promotion efforts via United States government and NGO initiatives. Similarly, Europe has also been very active in democracy promotion around the world for decades, and has established important models for its support. The material cited here assesses and analyzes the experience of these initiatives and their success, as well as addressing the field’s future.

Challenges to Democracy

  • Chua, Amy: World on Fire. 2003.
  • Hellman, Joel: “Winners Take All: The Politics of Partial Reform in Postcommunist Transitions” World Politics, Vol. 50, January 1998.
  • Ottaway, Marina: “The Challenges of Semi-Authoritarianism” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace working paper. www.ceip.org
  • Zakaria, Fareed: “The Rise of Illiberal Democracy” Foreign Affairs, Vol. 76, #6. 1997.

Selections from the “Washington Files”

CCD’s Op-Ed Articles

  • Chairman Robert Hunter and President Emeritus Walter Raymond: Towards Global Democracy, The Washington Times, 8 March, 2000
  • CCD President Emeritus John Richardson and President Richard C. Rowson: Democracy and Civic Education, International Herald Tribune, December 6, 2002
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